The Crisis of the Third Century Draws to a Close
Emperor Diocletian, a man of indomitable will and strategic brilliance, emerged onto the stage of the Roman Empire in the midst of the Crisis of the Third Century. Born in the humble surroundings of Dalmatia, he rose through the military ranks, displaying remarkable talent and charisma. The year was 284 AD when Diocletian ascended to the Imperial throne, a period marked by chaos, economic decline and external threats that had plagued Rome for decades.
Diocletian understood that a radical transformation was needed to rescue the Empire from the brink of collapse. One of his first acts was to implement a bold and innovative system where the Empire was divided into eastern and western halves to be ruled by co-Emperors. This division sought to streamline governance, enhance military defense and create a stable system of succession. The Western Roman Empire had its capital in Rome, while the Eastern Roman Empire’s was in Byzantium, later renamed Constantinople. Each functioned semi-autonomously under the new system.
Maximian, a fellow officer of Diocletian, was named Augustus and co-Emperor in 286. Diocletian reigned in the Eastern Empire and Maximian ruled in the West. Seven years later, Diocletian made a further division. In March 293, he appointed Galerius and Constantius Chlorus as junior colleagues, each with the title Caesar, under himself and Maximian respectively. Thus, the Tetrarchy, or “rule of four,” was formed, with each tetrarch ruling over one quarter of the Empire. Diocletian’s administrative reforms went further with the introduction of the Dominate system, which emphasized a clear separation between the ruler and the ruled. Diocletian positioned himself as a distant, god-like figure, shrouded in Imperial grandeur. The hierarchical structure of the government became more complex, with a rigid bureaucracy designed to manage the sprawling Empire.
As a military strategist, Diocletian secured the frontiers of the Roman Empire, effectively halting the advance of Germanic tribes and the Sassanian Persians. His victories brought a temporary reprieve to the external threats that had haunted Rome for years, providing a sense of stability to the war-weary citizens. However, Diocletian’s legacy is not without controversy. His fierce oppression of Christians, marked by the infamous Diocletianic Persecution remains a major condemnation against him. Fearing that the Christian refusal to participate in traditional Roman religious practices would anger the gods and bring calamity to the Empire, Diocletian ordered the systematic suppression of the religion. Churches were destroyed, sacred texts confiscated and believers faced imprisonment or worse.
The Great Persecution enacted by Diocletian was the last, but most severe endured by Christians during the period of the Roman Empire. The stories of martyrdom that survive reflect the intense religious conflicts of the time. One of the most famous figures from this era is Saint Sebastian, a Roman soldier who converted to Christianity and subsequently faced execution. Often depicted tied to a tree and shot with arrows, he miraculously survived. Left for dead by the Roman soldiers acting under orders of Diocletian, St. Sebastian was rescued and healed by Saint Irene of Rome. Shortly after his recovery, he waited for the Emperor in Rome and called out to him as he passed. Diocletian was stunned into silence, believing that he was witnessing a ghost, as St. Sebastian admonished him for the sins he had committed. Diocletian regained his senses and ordered his Imperial guards to bludgeon the Saint to death.
Another martyr of the period was Saint Agnes, a young and beautiful Christian girl who became a symbol of resistance against the persecution. She steadfastly refused to marry any pagan suitors and was subsequently executed, but not before numerous attempts of horrific violence against her. Through each of her ordeals, Agnes maintained her purity and faith until viciously struck down by a soldier. Another prominent figure is Saint George, a soldier in the Roman army who protested against Diocletian’s anti-Christian edicts. His courageous defiance and refusal to renounce his Christian faith led to his martyrdom and he is particularly venerated in both Western and Eastern Christian traditions. Additionally, the renowned theologian, Saint Nicholas of Myra, later to become the inspiration for the modern figure of Santa Claus, was imprisoned during the Diocletianic Persecution. The stories of martyrs and other Christians persecuted reflect the challenges they faced. All who refused to comply with the anti-Christian Imperial decrees faced imprisonment, torture and death.
The end of the Diocletianic Persecution came with the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, issued by Constantine and Licinius. This granted religious tolerance to all faiths, including Christianity and marked a significant shift in Imperial policy. It paved the way for the eventual establishment of Christianity as the favored religion of the Roman Empire under Constantine’s rule. The courage and resilience of the martyrs during the Diocletianic Persecution became a powerful symbol for the early Christian community, inspiring future generations of believers.
Despite his harsh treatment of Christians, Diocletian’s vision for the Empire was not solely marked by repression. He enacted economic reforms that sought to stabilize the currency and control inflation, creating a more robust economic environment. Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian’s Tetrarchic system collapsed following his retirement under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, the sons of Maximian and Constantius, respectively. After Diocletian’s abdication in 305 AD, the subsequent power struggles between the various Emperors weakened the unity he had sought to establish, eventually leading to the downfall of the system.
When Diocletian retired, he left behind a Roman Empire that, for a brief moment, exhibited a semblance of stability, but the Tetrarchic system, meant to ensure a smooth transition of power, did not entirely eliminate internal strife. The power-sharing arrangement, while pragmatic in theory, faced challenges in practice. The death of Constantius Chlorus in 306 AD triggered a series of events that eventually led to the collapse of the system and his son, Constantine, would play a pivotal role in shaping the course of the Empire and world history.
Constantine’s ascent to power, marked by both military prowess and political cunning, led to a series of conflicts known as the Tetrarchic Wars. The Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 AD, a showdown between Constantine and Maxentius, became a turning point. Before the battle, Constantine saw a vision of a cross in the sky, accompanied by the words In hoc signo vinces, or “In this sign, you will conquer.” Taking this as a divine sign, Constantine embraced Christianity and went on to win the battle. With the defeat of Maxentius, Constantine became the Western Augustus, reuniting the Empire under his rule and paving the way for Christianity as the religion of Rome.
The Crisis of the Third Century ended under Diocletian. Multifaceted and complicated, the Emperor was also a study in contrasts and confliction. He was autocratic yet instituted the power division of the Tetrarchy. He relished control, but retired quietly once he thought his plans were soundly in place. His greatest plan – the Tetrarchy, although short-lived, left an enduring impact on the Imperial succession system. Diocletian’s reign remains a fascinating chapter in the grand narrative of Rome’s rise and fall.
